—  SHORT COURSE #21  —

Mesenchymal Neoplasms of the Female Genital Tract

Case 7 - Myxoid Leiomyosarcoma

Teri Longacre, Esther Oliva and Robert Soslow


Introduction
Uterine leiomyosarcoma is the most common uterine sarcoma among young women. It represents approximately 45% of all uterine sarcomas but only 1% of all uterine malignancies. It is the malignant counterpart of uterine leiomyoma; however, the incidence of malignant transformation of leiomyomas is very low. There seems to be an increased incidence of leiomyosarcoma among black women, although not as pronounced as with leiomyomas.

Clinical Features
Most leiomyosarcomas occur in women over 40 years of age. Patients frequently present with abnormal vaginal bleeding, pain or both. Although rapid enlargement of a myometrial tumor may suggest leiomyosarcoma, a similar finding occurs in leiomyomas in women taking oral contraceptives and on occasion in patients without an obvious predisposing cause. In rare patients, the presenting manifestations are related to tumor rupture (and hemoperitoneum), extrauterine extension (present in one-third to one-half of cases), or metastases.

Pathologic Features
These tumors are typically large solitary masses with a mean diameter of 10 cm, however, 25% of the tumors were < 5 cm in one series. Approximately two-thirds of leiomyosarcomas are intramural, one-fifth submucosal, and one-tenth subserosal; 5% arise in the cervix. They are almost always less circumscribed than leiomyomas and cannot be shelled out from the adjacent myometrium. In 90% of cases, leiomyosarcomas are either the only mass, or when associated with leiomyomas (as they often are), the largest mass. Convincing examples of leiomyosarcoma arising in a typical leiomyoma or leiomyoma variants, however, are rare.

Leiomyosarcomas can be divided in three main categories: a) conventional/spindle; b) epithelioid; and c) myxoid. The distinction is important as the diagnostic criteria vary from type to type.

A) Spindle cell leiomyosarcoma

The cut surface is typically bulging, soft, fleshy and focally necrotic and hemorrhagic At low-power, conventional leiomyosarcomas frequently show an infiltrative growth with destruction of

the surrounding myometrium. They are composed of long intersecting fascicles of spindled cells with eosinophilic fibrillary cytoplasm and elongated blunt-ended nuclei. These tumors are frequently, although not always, hypercellular and this feature is not considered a criterion of malignancy. Microscopic diagnostic criteria include:

-Diffuse moderate to marked nuclear atypia

-High mitotic rate (>10 mitoses/10 HPFs; 90% have >15 MFs/10 HPFs)

-Tumor cell necrosis, characterized by an abrupt transition from viable to non-viable cells without an interposed zone of granulation or fibrous tissue. Preserved nuclei with marked pleomorphism and hyperchromasia can still be seen within the necrotic areas and there is a perivascular growth of the viable tumor cells. Tumor cell necrosis is highly characteristic of leiomyosarcomas and its presence should be considered worrisome. This type of necrosis should be distinguished from infarct-type necrosis that may be seen in benign or malignant smooth muscle tumors. It is characterized by the finding of granulation tissue or fibrous or hyalinized tissue between the necrotic and the viable tumor (depending of the age of the infarct); it is also frequently associated with recent hemorrhage. The necrotic tissue has a mummified and homogeneous appearance with no perivascular growth of tumor cells. There is a third type of necrosis, ulcerative necrosis, which typically involves the ulcerated surface of a submucosal smooth muscle tumor and it is surrounded by prominent numbers of inflammatory cells, especially neutrophils, and may be seen in benign and malignant smooth muscle tumors.

In the experience of Bell and colleagues, any of the two of the three criteria listed above warrant a diagnosis of leiomyosarcoma. In some cases, the distinction between early infarct-type necrosis and tumor cell necrosis may be extremely difficult.

Rare leiomyosarcomas contain a prominent component of osteoclastic type giant cells. In some cases, the giant cell component of the tumor resembles a benign or malignant giant cell tumor of bone or a giant cell variant of malignant fibrous histiocytoma. Rare "xanthomatous leiomyosarcomas" which can be focally or diffusely yellow, contain large cells with abundant cytoplasm, lipid vacuoles, and multiple or multilobulated nuclei sometimes disposed in a wreath-like arrangement. The xanthomatous cells are disposed in solid sheets or are intimately admixed with smooth muscle cells.

Diagnostic Criteria for Uterine Smooth Muscle Tumors (Bell Et Al.)
  • MI<20 /10 HPFs, no tumor cell necrosis, no atypia, or no more than mild cytologic atypia: LEIOMYOMA WITH INCREASED MITOTIC ACTIVITY.

  • MI>20 /10 HPFs, no tumor cell necrosis, no atypia or no more than mild cytologic atypia: LEIOMYOMA WITH INCREASED MITOTIC ACTIVITY BUT EXPERIENCE LIMITED.

  • MI<10 /10 HPFs, no tumor cell necrosis, but with focal moderate to severe cytologic atypia: ATYPICAL LEIOMYOMA WITH LIMITED EXPERIENCE.

  • 0< MI<10 /10 HPFs, no tumor cell necrosis, but with diffuse moderate to severe cytologic atypia: ATYPICAL LEIOMYOMA WITH LOW RISK OF RECURRENCE.

  • MI<10/ 10 HPFs, with tumor cell necrosis and no to mild cytologic atypia: SMOOTH MUSCLE TUMOR OF LOW MALIGNANT POTENTIAL.

  • MI>10 /10 HPFs, no tumor cell necrosis, but with diffuse moderate to severe cytologic atypia: LEIOMYOSARCOMA

  • Any MI with tumor cell necrosis, with diffuse or focal moderate to severe cytologic atypia: LEIOMYOSARCOMA.

  • MI>10/10 HPFs, with tumor cell necrosis, no to mild atypia: LEIOMYOSARCOMA.

B) Epithelioid leiomyosarcoma

On low power examination these tumors most frequently show diffuse growth, but the cells can also form nests, cords or occasionally pseudoglandular spaces. Stromal hyalinization may be slight and focal, or marked and diffuse, particularly in association with a plexiform pattern, and rare tumors have had a myxoid stroma. The cytoplasm is usually eosinophilic and granular, but may be clear, and in about 25% of the cases the entire tumor is composed of clear cells. The round or angular nucleus is typically central but may be eccentric, occasionally resulting in a signet-ring appearance. Because of the rarity of these tumors, criteria predictive of malignancy are less well established than for conventional leiomyosarcomas. However, as a general rule, the finding of > 5 mitoses/10 HPFs, diffuse moderate to severe cytologic atypia or tumor cell necrosis warrants a diagnosis of epithelioid leiomyosarcoma.

C) Myxoid leiomyosarcoma

These tumors typically have a gelatinous cut surface and often a deceptively well-circumscribed border. On microscopic examination, they infiltrate the myometrium in irregular tongues, and in some cases myometrial veins, a feature that may be quite striking. In contrast to conventional leiomyosarcomas, most or all tumors are hypocellular. They are characterized by an abundant paucicellular myxoid matrix that is weakly basophilic or eosinophilic, weakly positive with the periodic acid-Schiff and mucicarmin, and strongly positive with alcian blue and colloidal iron. The tumor cells may be uniformly distributed throughout the myxoid stroma or arranged in loose fascicles. They usually exhibit only focal mild to moderate nuclear pleomorphism. Most of the tumor cells have scant cytoplasm, oval, spindle, or stellate nuclei with small nucleoli and, with rare exceptions, very low mitotic rates. Non-myxoid areas, which are present to a variable degree, usually exhibit greater degrees of nuclear pleomorphism and mitotic activity and architectural and cytologic features that help establish the smooth muscle nature of the neoplastic cells. Criteria for the diagnosis of malignancy in myxoid smooth muscle tumors include severe cytologic atypia and tumor cell necrosis (as in conventional leiomyosarcomas). However, in the absence of tumor cell necrosis and severe cytologic atypia the finding of > 2mitoses/10 HPFs in a myxoid smooth muscle tumor establishes the diagnosis of myxoid leiomyosarcoma.

In general it is important to remember that:
  • Thorough sampling is recommended any time a smooth muscle tumor has an unusual gross appearance (at least one section per centimeter in diameter).

  • Experience with cervical smooth muscle tumors is very limited and that these tumors should be treated with caution.

Immunohistochemical Features
Leiomyosarcomas express smooth muscle markers including desmin, h-caldesmon, smooth muscle myosin, and HDCA8. However, it is important to keep in mind that epithelioid and myxoid leiomyosarcomas may show lesser degrees of positivity for smooth muscle markers. Leiomyosarcomas are also frequently positive for CD10 and epithelial markers including keratin and EMA (the latter more frequent in the epithelioid variant). Conventional leiomyosarcomas express ER, PR and AR in approximately 30 to 40% of cases. Of note, it has been shown that leiomyosarcomas may stain for CD117 (c-kit) although c-kit mutations have not been detected up to date.

Differential Diagnosis
Uterine leiomyosarcomas should be distinguished from leiomyoma variants, more commonly leiomyoma with bizarre nuclei and mitotically active leiomyoma, but they should also be distinguished from spindle cell rhabdomyosarcomas and high-grade endometrial sarcoma.

Conventional leiomyosarcoma vs leiomyoma with bizarre nuclei
Leiomyomas with bizarre nuclei cause concern for malignancy because they display large atypical multinucleated or mononucleated cells, karyorrhectic nuclei simulating abnormal mitotic figures, prominent nucleoli, coarse chromatin and finally the presence of mitotic counts up to 7MFs/10HPF by the higher mitotic count. Helpful features to establish the diagnosis of leiomyoma with bizarre nuclei include the patchy distribution of the "atypical" cells in most cases, prominent nuclear pseudoinclusions, and degenerative type atypia of cells with pyknotic nuclei. The mitotic count, determined by averaging mitotic counts in a number of sets of 10 high power fields, typically ranges from 0 to 2.8 MFs/10HPFs (mean 0.8). In these cases it is very important to recognize that the areas not containing bizarre cells show bland cytologic features.

Conventional leiomyosarcoma vs mitotically active leiomyoma
These tumors may cause concern for leiomyosarcoma because of high mitotic rates that range from 5 to 15 MFs/HPFs (or even 19 in one series). This diagnosis is only allowed in the absence of nuclear pleomorphism (no more than mild nuclear atypia) and tumor cell necrosis. In contrast to leiomyosarcomas, these tumors almost always occur in women of reproductive age and are typically associated with the secretory phase of the menstrual cycle, pregnancy, or the use of exogenous hormones, consistent with the mitogenic effect of progestins on uterine leiomyomas.

Conventional leiomyosarcoma vs rhabdomyosarcoma
The more common types of uterine rhabdomyosarcoma (pleomorphic and embryonal) do not pose problems in the differential diagnosis with leiomyosarcoma. In the spindle cell variant the cells are predominantly spindled with elongated nuclei mimicking a conventional leiomyosarcoma. The finding of occasional cells with round eosinophilic cytoplasm, cytoplasmic cross striations, and positivity for skeletal muscle markers, myoglobin, and myoD1 are helpful in this differential diagnosis.

Conventional leiomyosarcoma vs high-grade endometrial sarcoma
This is a high-grade sarcoma with no specific differentiation and thus, this should be a diagnosis of exclusion.

Epithelioid leiomyosarcoma vs poorly differentiated carcinoma
Both entities share the presence of cells with abundant cytoplasm and an epithelial-like growth. Most carcinomas, however, exhibit, at least focally, overt glandular or squamous differentiation. Immunohistochemical or ultrastructural studies may facilitate the diagnosis. It is important to keep in mind that epithelioid smooth muscle tumors are frequently positive for keratin and EMA, thus, the use of a panel of antibodies rather than a single antibody is recommended.

Epithelioid leiomyosarcoma vs metastatic malignant melanoma
Metastatic malignant melanoma to the uterus is an unusual finding, but it should always be taken into account in the differential diagnosis of a uterine epithelioid neoplasm. This diagnosis can be excluded utilizing immunohistochemistry as they are S-100 and HMB-45 positive and lack of reactivity for smooth muscle markers.

Epithelioid leiomyosarcoma vs placental site trophoblastic tumor (PSTT) and epithelioid trophoblastic tumor (ETT)
Features shared by tumors derived of the intermediate trophoblast and epithelioid leiomyosarcoma include: a) myometrial-based tumor, b) diffuse growth and cells, c) abundant eosinophilic to clear cytoplasm. Features favoring a diagnosis of a trophoblastic tumor include a history of a recent pregnancy, an elevated serum hCG level, an infiltrative growth pattern with tumor cells dissecting preexisting smooth muscle bundles (PSTT), prominent vascular involvement (PSTT), fibrinoid change in vessel walls (PSTT), well circumscribed margins (ETT), nested growth around vessels (ETT), extensive areas of geographical necrosis (ETT), and immunoreactivity for CK18, inhibin and placental lactogen (both) and p63 (ETT).

Epithelioid leiomyosarcoma vs uterine tumors resembling ovarian sex-cord tumor (UTROSCT)
These tumors show prominent "epithelial-like" differentiation and frequently express smooth muscle and epithelial markers as epithelioid leiomyosarcomas. However, overall the degree of epithelial differentiation in most UTROSCTs is more pronounced than in epithelioid leiomyosarcomas, and tubular formation or even a retiform morphology and cells with prominently vacuolated cytoplasm can be seen. Furthermore, some of these tumors may also express inhibin, CD99 and calretinin, the so-called "sex cord markers.", Inhibin, at least, is always negative in smooth muscle tumors.

Epithelioid leiomyosarcoma vs "PEComa"
PEComa shares with an epithelioid leiomyosarcoma the following features: a) cells disposed in sheets or small solid nests or cords; b) cells with abundant clear or eosinophilic cytoplasm; c) expression of smooth muscle markers. However, "PEComas" are characteristically positive for HMB-45, Melan A and othermelanocytic markers while smooth muscle tumors for the most part only rarely express these markers (except in two recent studies where these markers show high frequency of positivity for these markers). Furthermore PEComa is frequently associated with tuberous sclerosis and lymphangiomyomatosis, while such association is not seen in smooth muscle tumors. The relationship between epithelioid leiomyosarcoma and uterine PEComa has yet to be clarified.

Epithelioid leiomyosarcoma vs alveolar soft part sarcoma
Alveolar soft part sarcoma of the female genital tract is uncommon and often misdiagnosed as a carcinoma or an epithelioid smooth muscle tumor. Solid variants of the alveolar pattern simulate the nested pattern of epithelioid leiomyosarcoma and both tumors contain cells with abundant pale cytoplasm. However, the typical alveolar growth pattern (with central spaces and cells falling into the spaces), fibrovascular septae, PAS-positive diastase resistant granules and crystals seen in alveolar soft part sarcoma are lacking in epithelioid leiomyosarcoma. Furthermore, the latter is often associated with spindle cell areas to a variable extent, a feature that is not seen in alveolar soft part sarcoma. Immunohistochemical stains are of no help as both tumors are positive for smooth muscle markers except for TFE3. Alveolar soft part sarcomas are characterized by the t(x;17)(p11;q25) with fusion of TFE3 transcription factor gene on Xp11 to a novel gene on 17q25. Thus, nuclear TFE3 staining can be used as a marker of these tumors.

Myxoid leiomyosarcoma vs myxoid leiomyoma
In contrast to myxoid leiomyosarcoma, myxoid leiomyomas are usually well circumscribed on gross and microscopic examination, the cytologic features are bland and mitotic figures are extremely rare. A mitotic index of <2 MFs /10 HPFs favors the diagnosis of myxoid leiomyoma. The distinction may be difficult in curettage specimens and the pathologist should be very cautious in these cases. It is important to be aware that a benign smooth muscle tumor may be only focally myxoid. Mistaking non-myxoid portions of the leiomyoma for myometrium may lead to the erroneous conclusion that myxoid portions of the tumor have invaded myometrium, resulting in a diagnosis of myxoid leiomyosarcoma.

Myxoid leiomyosarcoma vs intravenous leiomyomatosis with myxoid change
Both entities share an intravascular growth pattern which can be quite prominent in leiomyosarcoma. However, the finding of any degree of cytologic atypia, mitotic activity as well as extravascular tumor will favor the diagnosis of leiomyosarcoma.

Myxoid leiomyosarcoma vs leiomyoma with prominent hydropic change
In some cases, the edematous background may be confused with a myxoid matrix. This is particularly problematic when the hydropic change extends beyond the confines of the leiomyoma, which could lead to the impression of an infiltrative tumor. The distinction is crucial and can be achieved using alcian blue or colloidal iron, typically negative in leiomyomas with hydropic change.

Myxoid leiomyosarcoma vs myxoid endometrial stromal sarcoma
Some endometrial stromal sarcomas show prominent myxoid and/or fibrous background and may be misdiagnosed as myxoid leiomyosarcoma as the latter is more common. Helpful features to establish the diagnosis of endometrial stromal sarcoma include; a) the typical tongue-like pattern of infiltration, b) absence of fascicular growth, c) small vessels, and, d) in most cases, areas of conventional endometrial stromal neoplasia. These tumors may also cause problems when they metastasize, particularly to the lung, where a myxoid/fibrous appearance can predominate. It is important to notice that in some instances this appearance will be encountered in metastatic sites, but not in the primary tumor. Immunohistochemistry may be helpful using a panel that includes CD10, desmin and caldesmon.

Treatment and Prognosis
The treatment of choice for leiomyosarcomas is total abdominal hysterectomy and debulking of tumor if present outside the uterus, while removal of the ovaries and lymph node dissection remains controversial. Leiomyosarcomas have an overall poor prognosis. The 5-survival rate ranges from 12% to 40% for all stages while increases to 50-70% for tumors confined to the uterus. Up to 70% of patients with leiomyosarcomas confined to the uterus and nearly all with extrauterine disease at initial diagnosis will eventually recur with a median time to recurrence of 8 to 16 months. Myxoid and epithelioid leiomyosarcomas are aggressive tumors but with a postoperative interval to recurrence or metastases as long as 10 years in contrast to the conventional subtype. Leiomyosarcomas follow a hematogenous spread, commonly involving lung and liver. Hormonal status does not influence overall survival when corrected for stage, however, some patients may respond to hormonal treatment. In general, there is a poor correlation between survival and clinical or pathologic parameters. However, in a study of 208 uterine leiomyosarcomas, tumor grade and stage emerged as the most accurate predictive parameters. Other parameters including patient age >51 years, tumor size > 5cm and menopausal status also seemed to be associated with reduced overall survival at least by univariate analysis. p53, DNA ploidy, Bcl-2 may have a role in predicting outcome in leiomyosarcomas but it is not clear that these factors act independently of stage. In fact, stage is still the most powerful prognostic factor in leiomyosarcoma.

References

General:
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Conventional leiomyosarcoma:
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  11. Rao UN, Finkelstein SD, Jones MW. Comparative immunohistochemical and molecular analysis of uterine and extrauterine leiomyosarcomas. Mod Pathol 12:1001-9, 1999.

  12. Giuntoli RL, Metzinger DS, DiMarco CS, Cha SS, Sloan JA, Henney GL, Gostout BS. Retrospective review of 208 patients with leiomyosarcoma of the uterus:prognostic indicators, surgical management, and adjuvant therapy. Gynecol Oncol 2003;89:460-469.

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Epithelioid leiomyosarcoma:
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  4. Atkins K, Bell S, Kempson R, Hendrickson M. Epithelioid smooth muscle of the uterus. Modern Pathol2001; 14:132A.

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  11. Silva EG . Deavers MT, Bokurda DC, Malpica A Uterine leiomyosarcoma with clear cell areas. Reactivity with HMB-45 and the concept of PEComa. 2004;28:44-49.

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  13. Oliva E, Wang WL, Branton P, et al. Expression of melanocytic ("PEComa") markers in smooth muscle tumors of the uterus: an immunohistochemical analysis of 86 cases. Mod Pathol. 2006;86:191A

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  22. Ladanyi M, Antonescu CR, Drobnjak M, et al. The precrystalline cytoplasmic granules of alveolar soft part sarcoma contain monocarboxylate transporter 1 and CD147. Am J Pathol. 2002;160:1215-1221.

  23. Morimitsu Y, Tanaka H, Iwanaga S, Kojiro M. Alveolar soft part sarcoma of the uterine cervix. Acta Pathol Jpn. 1993;43:204-208.

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Myxoid leiomyosarcoma:
  1. Atkins K, Bell S, Kempson M, Hendrickson M. Myxoid smooth muscle tumors of the uterus. Modern Pathol 2001;14:132A.

  2. King ME, Dickersin GR, Scully RE. Myxoid leiomyosarcoma of the uterus. A report of six cases. Am J Surg Pathol 1982;6:589-598.

  3. Chen KT. Myxoid leiomyosarcoma of the uterus. Int J Gynecol Pathol 1984; 3:389-392. -

  4. Pounder DJ, Iyer PV. Uterine leiomyosarcoma with myxoid stroma. Arch Pathol Lab Med 1985;109:762-764.

  5. Salm R, Evans DJ. Myxoid leiomyosarcoma. Histopathology 1985;9:159-169.

  6. Peacock G, Archer S. Myxoid leiomyosarcoma of the uterus. Case report and review of the literature. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1989;160:1515-1519.

  7. Schneider D, Halperin R, Segal M, Maymon R, Bukovsky I. Myxoid leiomyosarcoma of the uterus with unusual malignant histologic pattern--a case report. Gynecol Oncol 1995;59:156-158.

  8. Oliva E, Clement PB, Young RH, Scully RE. Myxoid and fibrous endometrial stromal tumors of the uterus: A report of ten cases. Int J Gynecol Pathol 18:310-319, 1999.

  9. Yilmaz A, Rush DS, Soslow RA. Endometrial stromal sarcomas with unusual histologic features. A report of 24 primary and metastatic tumors emphasizing fibroblastic and smooth muscle differentiation. Am J Surg Pathol 2002;26:1142-1150.