—  LONG COURSE #01  —

Molecular Diagnosis in Pathology: The Bridge to the 21st Century
Moderators: Dr. Ricardo Lloyd and Dr. George Kontogeorgos

Section 2 - Molecular Approaches to the Diagnosis of Bone Tumors

Gene P. Siegal, M.D., Ph.D. and Walter C. Bell, M.D
University of Alabama at Birmingham, USA


Introduction
The classification of primary tumors of bone is complex, and as with all bone tumors requires consideration of tumor location, level of aggressiveness by clinical and radiological characteristics, and histology. The purpose of this presentation is to present a brief overview of the cytogenetic and molecular genetic findings associated with a wide range of neoplasms free of the traditional detailed exposition found in the primary literature. Some findings are characteristic of certain tumor types and has already begun to contribute to the determination of proper classification, serve as a clinical biomarker and have prognostic implications. The limited time allocated to this topic requires by necessity a limited exposition to select tumor types . Because the majority of the literature is focused on the malignant, small cell, blue, tumors of bone [and is therefore most familiar to the practicing diagnostic pathologist] it is tempting to focus on these. However, we have arbitrarily elected to purposely exclude those lesions and rather focus on chondroid lesions. As I example of the complexity of the topic of molecular approaches to bone tumors, we direct interested readers to our about to be published review article on p53 and cell cycle genes in osteosarcoma (Ternovoi et al, 2006).

Chondroid Neoplasms
Chondroma
Chondromas are common neoplasms and includes enchondroma, periosteal chondroma, and the rare extraskeletal soft tissue chondroma (Fechner and Mills, 1993). No distinctive cytogenetic or molecular findings distinguish among the various types of chondroma. Several studies have examined the karyotypic changes observed in enchondroma. Bridge et al. (1992) evaluated 7 solitary enchondromas for cytogenetic abnormalities. Five of the cases showed normal karyotypes. Clonal abnormalities were identified in two of the cases. These included an isochrome of the short arm of chromosome 6 (p10) and t(12;15)(q13;q26) in one case. These findings were of interest as similar changes have been described in chondrosarcoma. Other authors have also described alterations in chromosome 6 and in the long arm of chromosome 12 in enchondromas (Sawyer et al 1998; Buddingh et al. 2003) as well as in extraskeletal soft tissue chondromas (Dal Cin et al, 1997 ; Shadan et al, 2000). More recently, 12q13-15 segment has been shown to be nonrandomly involved in structural rearrangements in chondromas. The HMGA2 locus appears to be critical (Dahlen et al, 2003). Comparative genomic hybridization has been applied in only rare cases. Ozaki and associates studied 3 benign cartilaginous lesions, 2 of which were enchondromas. These tumors had small numbers of chromosomal aberrations (gains and losses). Both of the gains occurred on 13q21 and losses were observed on chromosomes 19 and 22q ( Ozaki et al, 2004). Interstingly, Indian Hedge Hog signalling thought to be critical in normal cartilage differentiation and maturation appears to be absent in enchondromas while parathyroid related protein [PTHrP] signalling is active but independent of IHH signalling (Rozeman et al, 2005).

Ollier disease is a rare, nonhereditary, disorder characterized by multiple enchondromatosis in children. A single study has examined the cytogenetic findings in a chondrosarcoma arising in Ollier Disease identifying del(1)(p11p31.2) as the only chromosomal abnormality (Ozisik et al, 1998). No detailed molecular or cytogenetic studies are yet reported for Maffucci syndrome, a syndrome similar to Ollier disease, but in addition to enchondromatosis, the patients also develop numerous hemangiomas and have a lower rate of development of chondrosarcoma. Neither Ollier's disease nor Maffucci syndrome is thought to be caused by mutations of PTHR1 (Rozeman et al, 2004), an activating mutation in the parathyroid hormone receptor type 1 gene previously reported in a subset patients with enchondromatosis. That mutation is thought to result in upregulation of the Indian hedge Hog - PTHrP pathway (Hopyan et al, 2002.

Osteochondroma
The majority of osteochondromas arise spontaneously, but a familial form, hereditary multiple exostoses syndrome (HME) exists. This is an autosomal dominant condition with incomplete penetrance in woman. Presentation can range from involvement of a single bone to extensive involvement of almost every bone in the body (Fechner and Mills, 1993). The molecular mechanisms of HME and solitary osteochondromas have been extensively studied and a strong association with mutations in EXT genes, 1-3 has been reported. In one large study of cytogenetic abnormalities in osteochondroma, Bridge et al. (1998) evaluated 34 tumors from 22 patients with sporadic osteochondromas and 4 patients with HME. Clonal changes were found in 10 of the cases. A deletion of 11p11.2-13 (corresponding to the EXT2 gene locus) was identified in one case. Eight cases exhibited loss or rearrangement of 8q22-24.1. These included 7 solitary osteochondromas and one case of HME. At the molecular level, mutations in EXT1 and/or EXT2 have been identified in over 70% of HME cases with 49 different EXT1 mutations and 25 different EXT2 mutations identified (Wuyts and Van Hull, 2000). Additionally, decreased levels of the EXT1 and EXT2 proteins have been demonstrated by immunohistochemistry in chondrocytes from osteochondroma as compared to normal control chondrocytes (Bernard et al, 2001). EXT1 and EXT2 are transmembrane glycoproteins involved in the synthesis of heparin sulfate. Both genes have been cloned and are located on chromosomes 8q23-q24 and 11p11-p13 respectively (Wuyts et al, 1996; Ahn et al, 1995). A third gene, EXT3 which localizes to chromosome 19p may also play a role in the development of osteochondroma.

The mechanism by which EXT mutations contribute to the formation of osteochondromas remains uncertain. Interestingly, it has been demonstrated that EXT2 does not function independently of EXT1 in glycosyltransferase activity and that a golgi localized EXT1/EXT2 hetero-oligomeric complex is formed which has much greater glycosyltransferase activity than either protein alone. This relationship suggests a mechanism by which mutation of either gene may result in loss of activity (McCormick et al, 2000). A proposed functional model has been suggested by Duncan et al (2001). Indian hedgehog (Ihh) and parathyroid hormone-related peptide serve as signaling molecules to regulate chondrocyte proliferation and hypertrophy. Ihh is produced by chondrocytes within the growth plate and binds to receptors on the osteogenic cells. This binding upregulates PTHrP binds to proliferating chondrocytes, inhibiting differentiation and apoptosis through induction of Bcl-2 production. Embryologic studies have demonstrated a requirement for heparin sulfate in order for Ihh to associate with target cells (Lin et al, 2000). It is proposed that the defective heparin sulfate production associated with EXT mutations causes a disruption in this signaling pathway which could cause aberrant maturation and bone growth within the proliferating cartilage.

Chondromyxoid Fibroma
Few studies have been performed regarding cytogenetic alterations in chondromyxoid fibroma. Sawyer et al. (1998) demonstrated complex rearrangements involving chromosome 6 homologues resulting in an inv(6)(p25q13)t(6;6)(q23;q13) in a single case. Halbert et al. (1998) identified a case of chondromyxoid fibroma with unbalanced reciprocal translocations between the short arm of chromosome 3 and the long arm of chromosome 6 with loss of multiple bands from chromosome 3 and rearrangements of several bands (6q21, 6q22, 6q23) on chromosome 6. Interestingly, one of the bands lost in chromosome 3, 3p21, is the locus for the PTHrP gene. Granter et al. (1998) examined 4 cases of chondromyxoid fibroma for karyotypic abnormalities and found all four to contain rearrangements of chromosome 6 involving band 6q13. Two of the tumors exhibited the inv(6)(p25q13) inversion previously described by Sawyer et al (1998). Such 6q13 rearrangements have not been described in other soft tissue tumors and may represent a relatively specific chromosomal marker for chondromyxoid fibroma. Safar et al. (2000) also describe chromosome 6 abnormalities in 2 cases of chondromyxoid fibroma. In their cases chromosome 6 translocations resulted in breakpoints at q25, distal to the q13 breakpoint in the previously described pericentric inversion. Work from our laboratory has provided preliminary evidence that surface CMF lesions have a different cytogenetic pattern than that recognized with conventional intramedullary forms. Although the morophologic features of CMF mimic that of normal chondrogenesis, expression of signaling molecules appears different. Specifically, N-cadherin, PTHLH and PTHR1 have been shown to be upregulated in normal cells as compared to those derived from CMF while increased expression of cyclin D!, P16 and BCL2 were observed in CMF cells (Romeo et al, 2005).

Chondroblastoma
Few chromosomal studies have been performed for chondroblastoma with no specific cytogenetic findings. VanZelderen-Bhola et al (1998) report a ring chromosome 4 in approximately 1/3 of cells from a single case of chondroblastoma. Aigner et al. (1999) analysed the extracellular matrix in a series of chondroblastoma cases and failed to demonstrate type II collagen, the dominate matrix component of cartilage matrix. Instead, the matrix was predominately composed of type I collagen, the prominent component of osteoid. This has subsequently been further confirmed (Schorle et al., 2002). The authors suggest that chondroblastoma should be classified as a bone forming rather than cartilage-forming neoplasm. Dutch investigators (Romeo et al., 2004) have now shown that mesenchymal associated active growth plate signaling molecules including FGF-2 and its receptors FGFR-1 & 3 along with Ihh/PTHrP were expressed in the majority of cases. Most recently, using a combination of SKY and FISH, diploid or near-diploid karyotypes were recognized in virtually all these lesions which on further analysis were noted to have recurrent breakpoints at 2q35, 3q21-23 and 18q21 (Sjogren et al, 2004).

Chondrosarcoma
Conventional Chondrosarcoma
The clinical distinction between chondroma and low grade chondrosarcoma may be difficult. Sawyer et al (1998) suggest that chromosomal alterations in the region of 6q13-21 may be associated with locally aggressive behavior in cartilaginous tumors although t(6;15)(q13;q11) is reported for an enchondroma in this study. Amling et al (1998) suggest that regulators of chondrocyte differentiation, parathyroid hormone-related peptide (PTHrP) and Bcl-2, may aid in differentiation of benign and malignant cartilaginous tumors. They compared expression of these two markers by immunohistochemistry in 9 enchondromas and 14 chondrosarcomas of varying grade with increased expression of both markers in chondrosarcoma as compared with the enchondromas. Ploidy analysis has also been suggested as a useful adjunct in distinguishing benign from malignant cartilaginous neoplasms (Kusuzaki et al, 1999).

Cytogenetics of Conventional chondrosarcoma
There have been numerous series reporting the cytogenetic alterations in chondrosarcoma (Orndal et al., 1993; Tallini et al., 2002; Swarts et al., 1997; Gunawan et al., 2000; Bovee et al., 2001). In a recent large series examining 59 conventional chondrosarcomas, Mandahl et al. (2002) identify a number of chromosomal regions which were deleted in 10 or more of the cases: 1p36, 1p13-p22, 4, 5q13-q31, 6q22-qter, 7p13-pter, 9p22-pter, 10p, 10q24-qter, 11p13-pter, 11q25, 12q15-qter, 13q21-qter, 14q24-qter, 18p, 18q22-qter, 19, 20pter-q11, 21q, and 22q13. Of these, loss of 13q served as an independent prognostic factor for metastasis regardless of tumor grade or size.

Oncogenes of Conventional chondrosarcoma
Although no clearly reproducible patterns have emerged, increased expression of a number of oncogenes has been described in chondrosarcoma. Wrba et al. (1989) evaluated the expression of erb-B2 by immunohistochemistry in 23 cases of chondrosarcoma and found staining in 18 of the cases with no staining in normal cartilage controls. Castresana et al. (1992) found amplification of c-myc in two of nine cases examined. Immunoreactivity for c-MET has been describe in 54% of chondrosarcomas in one series, although there was no correlation with grade and even higher percentages of staining were observed in benign chondroid neoplasms (Naka et al, 1997). A single study used an in-situ hybridization technique to evaluate the expression of c-fos in chondrosarcoma (Weisstein et al, 2001). Moderate expression of c-fos was identified in 3 of 6 cases and high expression levels were observed in one case. Other authors have reported the absence of c-fos expression in chondrosarcomas (Franchii et al, 1998; Pompetti et al, 1996). Proto-oncogenes which have been evaluated in chondrosarcoma and have not been found to be overexpressed include c-jun, c-myb, H-ras, K-ras, N-ras, and c-fms (Franchi et al., 1998; Pompetti et al., 1996; Castresana et al., 1992). Minichromosome maintenance protein (MCM6) has recently been shown to be up-regulated in low-grade chondrosarcoma as compared to enchondromas (Helfenstein et al, 2004).

Tumor Suppressor Genes of Conventional chondrosarcoma
Wadayama et al. (1993) evaluated chondrosarcomas for p53 alterations by immunohistochemical staining for p53 and report staining in 5 of the 20 cases examined. Staining was identified in high grade tumors but not in low grade tumors. Similarly, Simms et al. (1995) noted increased immunoreactivity for p53 in the high grade and dedifferentiated components of 8 dedifferentiated chondrosarcomas while lower grade chondrosarcoma components of 6 of the tumors showed no immunoreactivity. Other authors have also described increased expression of p53 or alteration of p53 associated with high grade and dedifferentiated tumors (Grote et al. 2000; Oshiro et al. 1998; Terek et al. 1998). Raskind et al. (1996) describe frequent loss of heterozygosity in chondrosarcoma on chromosome 10q suggesting a possible tumor supressor gene in this region. The role of the p16/pRB/cdk4 pathway has also been evaluated in a series of 8 chondrosarcomas by Western Blot analysis of the proteins (Asp et al., 2001). They saw loss of expression of p16 in one case, and this case was shown to have homozygous deletion of CKDN2, the p16 encoding gene.

Other Signaling Proteins
Bovee et al. (2000) evaluated the expression of PTHrP and bcl-2 in both central and peripheral chondrosarcomas. They found increased expression of these markers by immunohistochemistry as an early event in peripheral chondrosarcomas (occurring in low grade chondrosarcomas and not in osteochondromas) and a late event in central chondrosarcomas (expression largely confined to high grade tumors). Nishida et al. (2002) demonstrated expression of peroxidome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma by IHC in 67.9% of 28 human chondrosarcomas evaluated. Using a chondrosarcoma cell line, they were able to block proliferation and induce apoptosis using a specific ligand to this receptor suggesting that this receptor may play an important role in cellular proliferation in chondrosarcoma. In a similar study, Miyaji et a. (2003) have show that an anti-PTHrP monoclonal antibody induced apoptosis in a chondrosarcoma cell line.

Extraskeletal Myxoid Chondrosarcoma
EMC stands alone among chondrosarcoma variants as having distinctive cytogenetic and molecular alterations. A t(9;22)(q22;q12) translocation has long been recognized and is identified in approximately 75% of cases (Turc-Carel et al., 1988; Orndal C et al., 1991; Hirabayashi et al., 1995; Stenman et al., 1995; Sciot et al., 1995). This translocation results in fusion of the 5' portion of the EWS gene to the TEC (also known as NOR1 and CHN) gene which encodes an orphan nuclear receptor (Labelle et al., 1995; Kleinfinger et al., 1996; Brody et al., 1997; Panagopoulos et al., 2002 ) . The resulting fusion protein acts as a transcription factor (Labelle et al., 1999; Maltais et al., 2002; ) and also is involved in regulation of mRNA splicing (Ohkura et al., 2002). Two additional related translocations have also been described in EMC. A t(9;17)(q22;q11) translocation is seen in approximately 15% of cases and results in a fusion of the amino portion of the TAF2N (TAF15, a gene closely related to EWS) gene to TEC (Sjogren et al., 1999, Bjerkehagen et al., 1999; Attwooll et al., 1999; Panagopoulos et al., 2002). The third variant, t(9;15)(q22;q21) results in a fusion of TCF12 (basic helix-loop-helix transcription factor) to TEC (Sjogren et al., 2000).

Sjogren et al. (2003) evaluated ten cases of EMCs and identified clonal chromosomal abnormalities in 9 of the cases. Characteristic fusion proteins, including 5 cases with EWS-TEC, 4 cases with TAF2N-TEC, and 1 case with TCF12-TEC, were identified for all cases. Additionally, the authors performed cDNA microarray analysis for two cases (compared to myxoid liposarcoma) and found the most differentially expressed gene for both EMCs to be CHI3L1, which encodes a glycoprotein involved in extracellular matrix degradation, suggesting a possible role in tumor invasion. Another recent study demonstrates the function of Six3, a homeotic protein as a cofactor in transcriptional activation of TEC alone and a co-repressor of transcriptional activity of the EWS-TEC fusion protein (Laflamme et al., 2003). The authors also demonstrated co-expression of the EWS-TEC fusion protein and Six3 in four cases of ECM. Interestingly, it has recently been suggested (Aigner et al., 2004) that extraskeletal lesions do not show a chroncytic phenotype but rather primitive pleuipotential mesenchymal cells. Lastly, a team of North American investigators (Subramanian et al., 2004) have shown that neuromedin B [NMB] is a highly expressed gene in all cases examuned using cDNA microarray technology.

Clear Cell Chondrosarcoma
Due to the rarity of these neoplasms, few molecular studies have been performed. Kleist et al. (2002) demonstrated allelic loss at 9p22 and 18q21 and methylation of the p16 gene on chromosome 9p in a case of clear cell chondrosarcoma of the larynx. Park and colleagues from Korea, Jkapan and the Mayo clinic found p53 genetic alterations to be a rare event in clear cell chondrosarcomas in the face of a significant fraction of cases demonstrating overexpression of the molecule (Park et al, 2001a). Similarly, only a low incidence [2/38] of genetic alterations in the cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor p16CDKN2a tumor suppressor gene was identified in these same lesions (Park et al, 2001b).

Mesenchymal Chondrosarcoma
Cytogenetic studies have revealed no characteristic karyotypic abnormalities for mesenchymal chondrosarcoma (Sainati et al., 1993; Dobin et al., 1995; Szymanska et al., 1996). Naumann et al. (2002) have described two cases of mesenchymal chondrosarcoma, one skeletal and one extraskeletal, with der(13;21)(q10;q10) suggesting that translocations in this region may be significant in the development of these tumors. Park et al. (2000) evaluated 33 cases of mesenchymal chondrosarcoma for p53 expression and mutation. They report increased expression of p53 in 61.3% of cases, but no p53 gene mutations in exons 5-9. Wehrli et al. (2003) evaluated the expression of Sox9, a transcription factor which plays a role in the differentiation of mesenchymal cells into chondrocytes, in mesenchymal chondrosarcoma and other small blue cell tumors. They found expression of Sox9 by immunohistochemistry in 21 of 22 cases of mesenchymal chondrosarcoma, and no expression in any of the other tumors evaluated, which included Ewing's sarcoma/PNET, small cell osteosarcoma, and extraskeletal myxoid chondrosarcoma. This supports the recapitulation of early chondroid differentiation in the small blue cell component of these tumors and suggests that Sox9 may prove to be a useful diagnostic marker.

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